Alberto De Bonis

The potentiality of isotope analysis has largely been explored in archaeological sciences to date objects, attribute their provenance and depict ancient human dietary habits. However, the potential of this technique for pro-venance studies of ancient ceramics has barely been explored, due to the fact that the ceramic process often involves the selection of different raw materials and, consequently, different sources of radiogenic isotopes. In this paper, 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and 143 Nd/ 144 Nd isotope ratios were measured on raw materials (clays and volcanic temper) that were exploited in antiquity for producing pottery in the Campania region of Italy and, for the first time, on experimental ceramic materials that replicate archaeological pottery. To validate the method, Sr and Nd isotope ratios were also measured on selected archaeological pottery from Cuma. The results of this pioneering approach clearly show that the synthetic mixtures used for the ceramic replicas plot exactly on the theoretical mixing curve between the clay and volcanic temper end-members. On the other hand, technological processes employed during pottery manufacturing such as firing and levigation induce no significant variations in Sr and Nd isotope ratios. Isotope characterisation represents an effective fingerprint of pottery that strictly depends on the geochemical affinity of the raw materials, thus providing a better discrimination among different ceramic productions.

Bricks are the most common building materials of Madagascar due to the large availability of clayey raw material, the simple technology of production and the ease of use. The brick production is mainly organised in local workshops close to supplying site of clayey deposit where sediments are extracted, moulded in bricks, dried and then fired in open-air furnaces. Fuel varies from peat soils to wood depending on the local availability. Correspondingly, firing time varies from few days in wood furnaces to some weeks in peat fired furnaces. Samples of bricks and raw materials as well as peat fuel, from four workshops located in central and southwestern Madagascar were collected and analysed to infer the technological skills of the Malagasy traditional brick manufacture. Central Highlands Madagascar workshops use clayey lateritic soils formed from in situ weathering of basement rocks. The main plastic component of these deposits is kaolinite. Also the clayey sediments from southwestern Madagascar have kaolinite along with low-ordered clay minerals and carbonates such as calcite and minor Sr-rich dolomite.

As far as fired bricks are concerned, experimental data evidenced quite low firing temperatures (below 600 °C) in the two different furnaces, regardless the type of fuel. As far as peat fuel is concerned, its low calorific value along with a large amount of furnace energy dispersion does not allow to achieve the temperatures required to produce good quality bricks, notwithstanding long firing time (some weeks). On the other hand, firewood powdered furnaces, although providing much higher energy and a consequent much shorter firing process (few days), also suffer of diffuse heat dispersions which concur to the bad quality of the final product.

The specific energy input calculated for type 1 furnace (peat fuel) ranges between 0.09 MJ/kg and 0.18 MJ/kg of clayey material thus confirming a rather inadequate firing process for the production of good quality bricks, and a rough estimate indicates that volume ratios between peat and clayey material as low as 1:1 should be used in order to reach “modern” specific energy inputs.

Recent transportation infrastructure works in Naples, Italy, provided important discoveries related to the production of pottery in the Hellenistic workshop area of Piazza Nicola Amore. A minero-petrographic investigation was conducted on 35 samples belonging to the widespread Campana A ware and production indicators (clayey raw materials, unfired Graeco-Italic amphorae, kiln wastes, workshop tools). Additional analysis was conducted on black-glaze and common ware samples for comparison. The analyses reveal compositional and technological homogeneity of Campana A ware. Samples are characterized by low CaO content with evidence of both volcanic and sedimentary components, suggesting that different clay sources were properly mixed to prepare a standard recipe. Production indicators, black-glaze and common wares, have a composition well consistent with the calcareous clays from the island of Ischia. Leucite- and garnet-bearing temper from the Somma Volcano were used for the preparation of coarse-grained pastes, unfired Graeco-Italic amphorae, and clayey raw materials, thus suggesting that they represented the clay sources for amphorae production. Our results reveal new technological and socioeconomic aspects of Hellenistic pottery production in the Bay of Naples, in particular for the Campana A ware, now representing a new reference group: Neapolis.

Different techniques (X-ray diffraction, field emission scanning electron microscope, colorimetry, visible-near infrared reflectance spectroscopy) were carried out to investigate the cause of colour changes of traditional ceramic materials. Two clayey materials of different composition, collected in the Bay of Naples, were fired in oxidising atmosphere at different temperatures resulting in different shades of red colour.

Hematite is responsible of the reddish hue of ceramics and its nucleation is strictly related to firing temperature and chemical composition of the raw materials. A low CaO concentration allowed hematite to form in higher amounts providing a more intense reddish hue at high firing temperatures (over 950 °C). At the highest temperature (1100 °C) all samples showed darker colour due to increased size of iron oxide particles. Black core developed in Ca-rich ceramics fired at low temperatures as the short time of firing is insufficient to complete iron oxidation within the matrix, except in those containing high temper amounts. Indeed, microstructural modification occurs due to the presence of discontinuities among temper grains and matrix, which improves the circulation of oxygen in the core of ceramics.

The masjed-i jom’e of Isfahan is one of the earliest mosques of Iran. Since 1970, Italian researchers performed an extensive archaeological investigation uncovering huge amounts of finds. This study aims at investigating the technological features and provenance of the unglazed pottery finds by using a minero-petrographic approach. Twenty-three samples of storage, table and cooking wares were selected based on the recurrence of typologically identifiable fragments and fabrics. Two bricks, seven production indicators (spacers, kiln furniture, slags) and a local clay were analysed for comparison. The production indicators and most of the pottery show high-CaO concentration. Thick-walled wares contain coarse sedimentary/metamorphic inclusions. Samples with thinner walls contain similar but fine/well-sorted inclusions. The mineralogy and microstructure indicate firing temperatures mainly ranging from 850 to 1000 °C. Low-CaO samples contain coarse sedimentary inclusions; in one sample, volcanic lithics are present. Firing temperatures range from about 800 to 950 °C, and the low-CaO character can be related to their specific function for cooking foods. One sample, found in older stratigraphic levels, differs for its peculiar calcitic temper and lower firing temperature. Local production of most samples was constrained by the composition of the inclusions compatible with the sediments of the Isfahan area. High-CaO pottery shows compositional affinity with production indicators, local clay and tiles produced in Isfahan during the Safavid period. Cooking ware usually contains local temper, with the exception of a sample with volcanic inclusions, for which a non-local provenance is supposed. No appropriate information is, however, available regarding the low-CaO clays used in the area.

The environmental status of the Falerno-Domitio littoral, a sector of the Italian south coast (Campania region) locally affected by an extensive anthropic pressure and pollution, was assessed by a multi-disciplinary approach, consisting of geological vs. biological studies. Geochemical abundance of potentially hazardous trace metals in beach sands is mainly constrained by the nature of the source rocks. Geochemical data of marine sediment quality with regards to possible heavy metal pollution and the enrichment factors of selected potentially toxic metals show that Cr and V values are higher in marine samples than in natural sources, suggesting that they are, at least in part, of anthropic derivation. A relationship between meiobenthos and heavy metals (Cr, Co, and V) has been also observed, providing a valuable biological marker to human-deriving chemical pollution. Ecotoxicological analyses confirm a relationship between enrichment in selected metals and moderate toxicity of some sea-bottom sediments closer to the coastline.

Archeological campaigns along the track of the Domitian road
in Cuma resulted in the recovery of a large amount of potshards
and crucible fragments (both open and closed forms),
covered with residues of blue and green frits, respectively.
Typological analysis of the crucibles combined with mineralogical
and petrological analyses on the ceramic body and frit residues
revealed that the forms are intimately related to the
technological data. Newly formed calcium silicates indicate
high firing treatments of crucibles during pigment making (not
lower than 950°C). In particular, different working temperatures
for the two types of crucibles have been estimated by the
presence/absence of sodalite-nosean feldspathoid. This mineral
formed after the reaction of Si-Al-rich material (the sintered
ceramic body) and alkalis transferred to ceramics via chemical
diffusion during the pigment synthesis. Thus, the estimated
working temperatures are higher for closed forms (>1100°C)
and lower for the open ones (950–1050°C). This different thermal
treatment perfectly fits with the temperatures of green and
blue pigment synthesis; higher temperatures for green pigments
allowed the formation of abundant Cu-bearing glassy phase,
whereas, blue pigment is prone to the formation and thermal
stability of cuprorivaite crystals (950–1050°C). Moreover, the
two frits showed similar recipes (quartz-feldspar-calcite-rich
sand) with the exception of more abundant Cu-bearing colorant
agent in blue hue and higher proportion of alkaline flux in
green frit. The obtained data suggested that crucibles were a
fundamental tool for pigment manufacturing, likely one of the
best example of ancient technical ceramics, as they permitted
controlling the temperatures along with the fuel and the treatment
time. Combining analytical and archeological data, the
production and the technology of the two colored compounds
identified as Egyptian Blue and Green frits in ancient Cuma
has been inferred. Finally, considering the Vitruvius excerpt
that identified an Egyptian Blue production in Puteoli, the area
of production can be widen up to the northern Phlegraean
Fields, also including Cumae and Liternum.

Villa San Marco is one of the best-preserved otium villae of the Bay of Naples.A multilayer technology was adopted for mortar-based materials.Lime binder and calcite/silicates/pozzolan aggregate were mixed following a precise recipe for each layer.Volcanic and sedimentary raw materials from surroundings were exploited.This current research is focused on the mineralogical and petrographic characterisation of mortar-based materials from Villa San Marco in the ancient Stabiae (modern Castellammare di Stabia, Napoli), an outstanding example of Roman otium villae, and aims at recognising the technology used by the ancient skilled workers.Several analytical techniques were used such as digital videomicroscopy, optical microscopy, digital image analysis, scanning electron microscopy coupled with EDS analysis and Quantitative Powder X-ray Diffraction.A multi-layer technology characterised the plasters; the scratch coat was made with lime mortars mixed with a pozzolanic lightweight aggregate and cocciopesto, required ingredients providing a quick-setting and a better adhesion with the support. As far as the arriccio layer is concerned, the mix-design is a lime mortar with volcanic sand as the aggregate and a minor content of pozzolan and/or cocciopesto to enhance the workability of the mortar in order to correct any error due to the roughness of the scratch coat. The plaster s.s. was the removable support in case of mistakes, and gave a lighter colour to the preparation layer of the frescoes. The last thin layer, prepared with lime mortars and a carbonate aggregate, is characterised by low porosity in order to avoid pigment adsorption. The painting technique was a fresco with encaustication.In contrast, the mortars of the building structures were made with lime added to a pozzolanic aggregate (volcanics and cocciopesto), giving a quick setting during the implementation of the yellow tuff opus reticulatum.The rudera and nuclei of the mosaics were built with abundant volcanic sand and cocciopesto mixed with the lime, producing a more resistant surface, and finally the tesserae were fixed exclusively with lime. The white and black colours of the mosaics were produced by local limestone and tephritic lava.The results permitted an evaluation of the high level of specialization of both the workers and the artists that built and decorated these maritime villas. Moreover, the collected data highlighted the wide potentiality of the materials cropping out in the environs of the Somma-Vesuvius volcanic complex. This research aims at furnishing a useful reference for future restoration action in Villa San Marco and the other Roman villas in this area.

ABSTRACT We performed petrophysical analyses on 34 clayey samples of different geological origin within the Campania region of Italy in order to determine possible sources of raw materials used to produce ancient pottery. Possible raw material sources can be grouped into high-CaO clays (HCC) and low-CaO clays (LCC). HCC are mainly represented by more recent (Miocene-Pleistocene) basinal sediments whereas LCC tend to be associated with basinal, alluvial, and pyroclastic deposits. A chemical comparison between clayey raw materials, modern ceramic replicas, and Campanian archaeological ceramics of several typologies (common ware, cooking ware, fine tableware, amphorae, and bricks) from 8th century B.C. to the Middle Ages (a total of 350 ceramic samples) indicates that HCC were extensively used for common wares and that these were either mixed with temper or levigated. In contrast, most of the LCC were used for the production of cookware. We also analyzed the technological potential of the sampled raw materials, taking into consideration their actual and possible uses. We observed that most HCC deposits were well suited for tableware and amphorae, whereas LCC were better for cookware and some fine tableware.

ABSTRACT The features of two clayey raw materials from the Bay of Naples and their fired products were investigated via minero-petrographic and physical techniques. Clay preparation and firing dynamics were performed following a process similar to that performed by ancient and traditional potters. A high-CaO marine clay from Ischia was mixed with different amounts of volcanic temper in order to replicate most common ware. These mixtures show a fair mechanical resistance starting from relatively low firing temperatures (>850 °C). The addition of temper resulted in different technological characteristics. A low-CaO weathered pyroclastics from the Sorrento Peninsula was prepared to simulate heat resistant and refractory ceramics. Fired products are characterised by a less resistant ceramic body up to 1000 °C compared to Ischia ceramics. Despite worse strength these ceramics show a porous structure, yielding better refractory performances.

Campania Region hosts prestigious terroirs, the most famous interesting the Irpinia area. Actually, Lapio district (Avellino province) represents a reliable example of the relationship between wine production and territory development. The present study reports the geological and mineropedological features of the selected territory and aims at appraising the typicalness of a prestigious wine production, the Fiano di Avellino DOCG by spreading the results of such an interdisciplinary study

The systematic excavation of the site of Guado San Nicola (Monteroduni, Molise) revealed a stratigraphic sequence, more than two meters thick, located on the distal part of an ancient terraced alluvial cone made by the Lorda creek, a tributary of the Volturno river. The lithologic, morphographic and pedostratigraphic evidences suggest its attribution to an Interstadial of MIS6 or to MIS 72. The radiometric dating (40Ar/39Ar method and Electron Spin Resonance in combination with the uranium family disequilibrium method) reported an age between 350 and400.000 years, confirmed by a Late Galerian fauna and by the presence of Cervus elaphus acoronatus and Equus ferus ssp. The fauna assemblage, apart from these two taxa, is characterized by the presence of Ursus sp., Elephas sp., Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis, Bos primigenius e cf. Megacerinae, which denote a warm temperate dry climate. Paleontological remains are characterized by the presence of intentional fractures produced by human ac...

LARGE PROTOHISTORIC IMPASTO DOLIA FROM CENTRAL-SOUTHERN CALABRIA. CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF
TYPOLOGY, CHRONOLOGY, TECHNOLOGY AND FUNCTION - A high number of fragments of large protohistoric impasto pithoi has
been found in several sites in the area, and mainly in Serre di Altilia (central Calabria). These fragments have been
studied with other pithoi from Tropea (southern Calabria), in order to reconstruct their forms, typology, chronology,
technology and function. It has been possible to define five types, with chronologies that may vary from the Final
Bronze to the Early Iron Age, and with parallels in several sites of Southern Italy, in Sicily and at Lipari. Petrografic
analyses on fragments from Central Calabria have shown a quite variable production, locally and/or regionally made.
Chemical analyses have been also performed on two residue samples, in order to identify what kind of foodstuff was
originally stored in these pithoi. The results of the analyses show the presence of terpenoid resins, such as Pistacia or
Pinus, which may suggest the presence of wine.

The ancient town of Allifae (modern Alife) represents one of the most interesting settlements of the Northern Campania area that, together with the ancient city of Cales, was a thriving
production centre of pottery. Excavations carried out inside the city wall, near the south gate, the so-called Porta Fiume, unearthed a huge dump of thin walled ware where the most abundant forms were cups and beakers, decorated with grooves or rouletting. The dump has been dated
Augustan/ early Tiberian age (20 b.C.- 20 AD) and the thin walled vessels found can be identified with similar wares from Allifae, Cubulteria, Caiatia and perhaps Neapolis. Horace in
his Sermones (II, 8,39) cited the Allifana beakers (described as fictiles ac subtiles by a Horace scholiast) and they could possibly be identified with the thin walled wares produced in Allifae.
If this the case, then the thin walled vessels produced in Allifae were known in Rome as early as the end of I century B.C. In order to investigate and characterise the Allifae thin-walled pottery, twenty-one samples were selected and mineralogical-petrographic analyses (OM, XRPD, XRF and SEM/EDS) were carried out. The clayey raw material used was a low-CaO alluvial
clayey deposit from the Middle Valley of the Volturno River. The potters probably handled the sediment by a levigation process in order to remove the coarser grains, and making the clay
suitable to produce such thin walls. Comparison with other regional production of thin-walled pottery allowed us to strictly distinguish the Allifana beakers.

The features of two clayey raw materials from the Bay of Naples and their fired products were investigated via minero-petrographic and physical techniques.
Clay preparation and firing dynamics were performed following a process similar to that performed by ancient and traditional potters. A high-CaO marine clay from Ischia was mixed with different amounts of volcanic temper in order to replicate most common ware. These mixtures show a fair mechanical resistance starting from relatively low firing temperatures (>850 °C). The addition of temper resulted in different technological characteristics. A low-CaO weathered pyroclastics from the Sorrento Peninsula was prepared to simulate heat resistant and refractory ceramics. Fired products are characterised by a less resistant ceramic body up to 1000 °C compared to Ischia ceramics. Despite worse strength these ceramics show a porous structure, yielding better refractory performances.

We performed petrophysical analyses on 34 clayey samples of different geological origin within the Campania region of Italy in order to determine possible sources of raw materials used to produce ancient pottery. Possible raw material sources can be grouped into high-CaO clays (HCC) and low-CaO clays (LCC). HCC are mainly represented by more recent (Miocene-Pleistocene) basinal sediments whereas LCC tend to be associated with basinal, alluvial, and pyroclastic deposits. A chemical comparison between clayey raw materials, modern ceramic replicas, and Campanian archaeological ceramics of several typologies (common ware, cooking ware, fine tableware, amphorae, and bricks) from 8th century B.C. to the Middle Ages (a total of 350 ceramic samples) indicates that HCC were extensively used for common wares and that these were either mixed with temper or levigated. In contrast, most of the LCC were used for the production of cookware. We also analyzed the technological potential of the sampled raw materials, taking into consideration their actual and possible uses. We observed that most HCC deposits were well suited for tableware and amphorae, whereas LCC were better for cookware and some fine tableware.

Mineralogical and petrographical studies on 23 ancient pottery fragments of terra sigillata from ancient Cales (today Calvi Risorta, Caserta) are here discussed. Stamps on pottery surfaces assigned the fragments to Cales and other Italian workshops acting in Arezzo and Northern Italy area between 1st century B.C.-1st century A.D., other stamped fragments have an uncertain provenance. The mineralogical and petrographical features of pastes have been detected using optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, and DTA-DTG analyses. The geochemical comparisons among ceramics, production indicators of Calenian pottery (Black Glazed pottery spacers) and local clayey raw materials allowed to distinguish locally produced potsherds from imported ones. Moreover, the whole archaeological and archaeometric data set allowed to draw main technological aspects of a fine ware production much used on rich roman tables.

The Gran Potenza clay and the Pomici di Avellino pyroclastics, respectively the clay sediments and temper of the typical ceramic manufacture in Benevento area (Italy), were mixed in different proportion and fired at 850°, 900° and 950 °C. These experimental replicas were compared with historical ceramic products of Benevento. The similarities and/or differences between archaeological materials and replicas (in terms of amount of temper, firing temperature, pore system, etc.) have been discussed. The whole data confirm the wide utilization of the local available clayey raw material and the Pomici di Avellino, and give a new contribution on the petrophysical modifications of volcanic-rich ceramic pastes that occur in the firing temperature range comprised between 850° and 950 °C. Some peculiar features in the historical manufacturing are also reported.

Black-glaze pottery is a fine ware produced throughout the Mediterranean between the 6th and the 2nd c. B.C. This pottery is characterised by the typical black coating and encompasses a variety of shapes used in the everyday life, influenced by both Attic tradition and local impulses.
Since 2007 the interdisciplinary cooperation between archaeologists from different istitutions and geologists of the archaeometry research teams at Federico II University of Naples and Sannio University has made possible to analyse black-glaze samples, from the 5th to the 2nd c. B.C., collected in different sites of the Tyrrhenian coast of southern Italy: Cuma, Neapolis, Fratte, Pontecagnano, Paestum, Moio della Civitella, and Laos.
Samples were analysed via mineralogical-petrographic techniques, such as polarised light microscopy, X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy, in order to investigate both provenance and technological features. Whenever possible, production indicators (i.e., wasters, kiln furniture) and local raw materials were also analysed and compared with pottery in order to better identify local reference groups from the imported products.
The results showed the existence of local productions of black-glaze, but also the intense circulation of this kind of pottery among different sites. However, this study also highlighted some problems in analysing and interpreting this pottery. As fine ware, distinctive inclusions are not easily identifiable at microscope and also chemical analyses could be biased due to the possible preparation processes of the clays (i.e., levigation, mixing), which likely modified the original composition. The study once again evidenced the utility to compare a significant number of samples, selected from different sites, through an interdisciplinary and multi-analytical approach necessary to achieve satisfying results.

Colorimetry and accelerated aging tests were performed on ceramics prepared using two clays from the Bay of Naples (Ischia and Sorrento Peninsula). Visible-near infrared spectroscopy was applied in order to acquire further information on color and composition of ceramics. Different mix designs and firing dynamics were adopted in order to provide information on the control of aesthetic features of ancient building ceramics.
Color depends on firing temperature and physical-chemical composition of the raw materials. Low-CaO concentration provided a more intense reddish hue at high temperatures (over 950 °C). Black core developed in high-CaO ceramic samples fired at low temperatures, except for those containing high temper amounts.
Salt crystallization test showed that high-CaO ceramics are more durable starting from relatively low firing temperatures (over 850 °C).

This study deals with the characterization of ancient hydraulic mortars from the Piscina Mirabilis, the Roman Cistern of Miseno (1st century B.C.) in Campania, Italy. This research was performed in collaboration with archeologists and Superintendence of Archeological Heritage of Campania. Results confirmed that the Roman engineers extensively used coarse tuff aggregate, hydrated lime fresh water, and cocciopesto. The typical mineralogical association of phillipsite > chabazite > analcime, points out the provenance of the tuff aggregate from the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (NYT), which is the product of a Phlegraen fields eruption dating back to about 15,000 years ago. Extremely interesting is the composition of the cementiceous binding matrix, with the ontemporary presence of gel-like C-S-A-H, calcite, gypsum and finally tobermorite.

Archeological campaigns along the track of the Domitian road in Cuma resulted in the recovery of a large amount of pot-shards and crucible fragments (both open and closed forms), covered with residues of blue and green frits, respectively. Typological analysis of the crucibles combined with mineralogi-cal and petrological analyses on the ceramic body and frit residues revealed that the forms are intimately related to the technological data. Newly formed calcium silicates indicate high firing treatments of crucibles during pigment making (not lower than 950°C). In particular, different working temperatures for the two types of crucibles have been estimated by the presence/absence of sodalite-nosean feldspathoid. This mineral formed after the reaction of Si-Al-rich material (the sintered ceramic body) and alkalis transferred to ceramics via chemical diffusion during the pigment synthesis. Thus, the estimated working temperatures are higher for closed forms (>1100°C) and lower for the open ones (950–1050°C). This different thermal treatment perfectly fits with the temperatures of green and blue pigment synthesis; higher temperatures for green pigments allowed the formation of abundant Cu-bearing glassy phase, whereas, blue pigment is prone to the formation and thermal stability of cuprorivaite crystals (950–1050°C). Moreover, the two frits showed similar recipes (quartz-feldspar-calcite-rich sand) with the exception of more abundant Cu-bearing colorant agent in blue hue and higher proportion of alkaline flux in green frit. The obtained data suggested that crucibles were a fundamental tool for pigment manufacturing, likely one of the best example of ancient technical ceramics, as they permitted controlling the temperatures along with the fuel and the treatment time. Combining analytical and archeological data, the production and the technology of the two colored compounds identified as Egyptian Blue and Green frits in ancient Cuma has been inferred. Finally, considering the Vitruvius excerpt that identified an Egyptian Blue production in Puteoli, the area of production can be widen up to the northern Phlegraean Fields, also including Cumae and Liternum.